Power supplies and batteries

Batteries use lithium, graphite and, depending on chemistry, cobalt or nickel. Impacts depend on capacity, chemistry, process, manufacturing geography and the cell/pack boundary. An automotive battery LCA cannot automatically be transferred to a smartphone battery.¹²³⁴

Physical structure

Part	Materials / processes	Relevant impacts
Cathode	Cobalt for LCO; nickel/manganese/cobalt for NMC; iron/phosphate for LFP	Extraction, refining, manufacturing
Anode	Natural or synthetic graphite	Process energy and other inventory flows
Electrolyte	Lithium salts such as LiPF₆	Chemical production; water quantities require precise definitions
Current collectors	Copper and aluminium	Material production
BMS and casing	Electronics, plastics and metals	Manufacturing and processing

These are qualitative pathways, not proof that one indicator universally dominates each part.

Parametric model

Embodied impact

$$I_{emb}=\frac{C_{battery}}{1000}F_{chemistry}$$

$C_{battery}$ is capacity in Wh; $F_{chemistry}$ is impact per kWh of capacity. Capacity is not energy consumed over the battery's lifetime.

Simulator scenarios

Chemistry	Exploratory GWP, kg CO₂ eq./kWh capacity	Status
LCO	75	D4B educational assumption
NMC 622	65	D4B educational assumption
NMC 811	60	D4B educational assumption
LFP	50	D4B educational assumption

These are neither established meta-analysis medians nor factors validated by the papers cited below. They illustrate capacity scaling. A publishable assessment requires a factor identifying chemistry, factory, year, yield and cell/pack boundary. Earlier insufficiently traceable ADPe and water coefficients were removed from results and retained in the refactoring archive.

Illustrative material composition

Chemistry	Cobalt, g/kWh	Lithium, g/kWh	Nickel, g/kWh	Status
LCO	About 600	About 110	0	D4B composition assumption
NMC 622	About 200	About 90	About 350	D4B composition assumption
NMC 811	About 60	About 80	About 470	D4B composition assumption
LFP	0	About 80	0	Lithium assumption; cathode chemistry has no cobalt or nickel

These masses are inventory quantities, not environmental impact scores. Material criticality also includes supply risks and context; it is not synonymous with ADPe. Changes in chemistry can shift several impacts and performance properties simultaneously.

Reproducible example

Ex: a 20 Wh battery with the LCO scenario gives 20 / 1000 × 75 = 1.5 kg CO₂ eq. of modelled manufacturing GWP. Its share of a complete phone cannot be inferred without the phone inventory.

A replacement adds another battery inventory unless the equipment factor already includes that repair. It contributes only once.

Power supply / charger

Power supplies have their own manufacturing impacts and affect operational electricity through conversion efficiency. Their contribution relative to a battery depends on the system.

$$E_{input}=\frac{E_{useful}}{\eta}$$

Assumed efficiency	Input energy for 100 Wh useful output	Extra energy relative to useful output
80%	125 Wh	25%
90%	111.11 Wh	11.11%
95%	105.26 Wh	5.26%

Measurement boundary

Efficiency applies only to energy measured or estimated at the supply's output. A wall measurement already includes conversion losses. In a datacentre, IT energy measured at equipment AC input already includes those supply losses before PUE. Site electrical-infrastructure losses are already within PUE.

Indicator coverage

Indicator	Treatment
GWP	Educational scenario; an assessment requires a compatible inventory
ADPe, AP, PM, CTUe, CTUh	Relevant extraction/refining/manufacturing contributions; no isolated validated factor in this simulator
WU	Withdrawal, freshwater consumption, brine and scarcity impact are distinct, non-additive quantities
IR	Manufacturing and charging electricity can contribute; interpretation depends on method and unit

A complete equipment factor may include the battery without providing a separate contribution. Adding that whole factor to the battery model would duplicate the battery contribution.⁵

Assumptions and limitations

• Coefficients and material masses are exploratory; no statistical confidence interval is assigned.
• The simulator does not establish full pack coverage, including BMS, casing or cooling. The chosen factor must define its boundary.
• ADPe and WU factors are not established for these scenarios. Comparing indicator quality requires reviewing actual inventories and methods.
• Efficiency depends on operating load; suitable measurements can replace assumptions.
• Battery replacement is an explicit lifetime assumption, not an automatic addition to every equipment inventory.

D4B scenarios are separate from the cited contextual publications.

Interactive example

Capacity (Wh)

Chemistry

Lifetime (years)

Results (per year)

Climate (GWP): 3.25 kgCO2e Total embodied → 812.5 gCO2e Per year

Estimated critical materials

Cobalt: 10.0 g

Lithium: 4.5 g

Chemistry coefficients are D4B assumptions to calibrate to an identified cell or pack. Cobalt and lithium masses do not measure water or resource impacts, which are not assessed here.

Critical materials for the broader resource context.

Footnotes

1. Kelly et al., 2021, Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 174, 105762. Lithium-process study, not validation of the four simulator factors. Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate. ↩

2. Ellingsen et al., 2014, LCA of a Li-Ion Battery Vehicle Pack. LCA of a Li-Ion Battery Vehicle Pack. ↩

3. Peters et al., 2017, Environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries. Environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries. ↩

4. Olivetti et al., 2017, Li-Ion Battery Supply Chain. Li-Ion Battery Supply Chain. ↩

5. Equipment records and identified manufacturer reports may supply compatible product-specific evidence. References and scope: Sources and corpus. ↩